Category: Hospital and Medical

Hospital and Medical

Prostate Cancer

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Prostate cancer is a common type of cancer in males, but it is highly treatable in the early stages. It begins in the prostate gland, which sits between the penis and the bladder.

Prostate cancer is the most common cancer and the second leading cause of cancer death among men in the world. Prostate cancer usually grows very slowly, and finding and treating it before symptoms occur may not improve men’s health or help them live longer. Many prostate cancers grow slowly and are confined to the prostate gland, where they may not cause serious harm. However, while some types of prostate cancer grow slowly and may need minimal or even no treatment, other types are aggressive and can spread quickly.

Prostate cancer that’s detected early — when it’s still confined to the prostate gland — has the best chance for successful treatment.

What Is Prostate Cancer?

Cancer starts when cells in the body begin to grow out of control. Cells in nearly any part of the body can become cancer cells, and can then spread to other areas of the body.

Prostate cancer begins when cells in the prostate gland start to grow out of control. The prostate is a gland found only in males. It makes some of the fluid that is part of semen.

The prostate is below the bladder (the hollow organ where urine is stored) and in front of the rectum (the last part of the intestines). Just behind the prostate are glands called seminal vesicles that make most of the fluid for semen. The urethra, which is the tube that carries urine and semen out of the body through the penis, goes through the center of the prostate.

The size of the prostate can change as a man ages. In younger men, it is about the size of a walnut, but it can be much larger in older men.

Types of prostate cancer

Almost all prostate cancers are adenocarcinomas. These cancers develop from the gland cells (the cells that make the prostate fluid that is added to the semen).

Other types of cancer that can start in the prostate include:

  • Small cell carcinomas
  • Neuroendocrine tumors (other than small cell carcinomas)
  • Transitional cell carcinomas
  • Sarcomas

These other types of prostate cancer are rare. If you are told you have prostate cancer, it is almost certain to be an adenocarcinoma.

Some prostate cancers grow and spread quickly, but most grow slowly. In fact, autopsy studies show that many older men (and even some younger men) who died of other causes also had prostate cancer that never affected them during their lives. In many cases, neither they nor their doctors even knew they had it.

Possible pre-cancerous conditions of the prostate

Some research suggests that prostate cancer starts out as a pre-cancerous condition, although this is not yet known for sure. These conditions are sometimes found when a man has a prostate biopsy (removal of small pieces of the prostate to look for cancer).

Prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN)

In PIN, there are changes in how the prostate gland cells look when seen with a microscope, but the abnormal cells don’t look like they are growing into other parts of the prostate (like cancer cells would). Based on how abnormal the patterns of cells look, they are classified as:

  • Low-grade PIN: The patterns of prostate cells appear almost normal.
  • High-grade PIN: The patterns of cells look more abnormal.

Low-grade PIN is not thought to be related to a man’s risk of prostate cancer. On the other hand, high-grade PIN is thought to be a possible precursor to prostate cancer. If you have a prostate biopsy and high-grade PIN is found, there is a greater chance that you might develop prostate cancer over time.

PIN begins to appear in the prostates of some men as early as in their 20s. But many men with PIN will never develop prostate cancer.

Treatment

Treatment Trusted Source will depend on the cancer stage, among other factors, such as the Gleason score and PSA levels. It is also worth noting that many treatment options may be applicable, regardless of the stage of cancer.

In the sections below, we list some treatment options Trusted Source for prostate cancer and explore what treatment may mean for fertility.

Early-stage prostate cancer

If the cancer is small and localized, a doctor may recommend:

Watchful waiting or monitoring

The doctor may check PSA blood levels regularly but take no immediate action. Prostate cancer grows slowly, and the risk of treatment side effects may outweigh the need for immediate treatment.

Surgery

A surgeon may carry out a radical prostatectomy to remove the tumor. In addition to removing the prostate, the procedure may also involve the removal of the surrounding tissue, seminal vesicles, and nearby lymph nodes. A doctor can perform this procedure using either open, laparoscopic, or robot-assisted laparoscopic surgery.

Radiation therapy

This uses radiation to kill cancer cells or prevent them from growing. Options for early stage prostate cancer may include Trusted Source:

External radiation therapy: This method uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer cells. Conformal radiation therapy is a type of external radiation that uses a computer to help guide and target a specific area, minimizing the risk to healthy tissue and allowing a high dose of radiation to reach the prostate tumor.

Internal radiation therapy: Also known as brachytherapy, this method uses radioactive seeds that a doctor implants near the prostate. A surgeon uses imaging scans, such as ultrasound or computed tomography to help guide the placement of the radioactive substance.

Treatment will depend on various factors. A doctor will discuss the best option for the individual.

Advanced prostate cancer

As cancer grows, it can spread throughout the body. If it spreads, or if it comes back after remission, treatment options will change. Options can include:

Chemotherapy: This option uses drugs to help stop the growth of cancer cells. While it can kill cancer cells around the body, it may cause Trusted Source adverse effects.

Hormonal therapy: Androgens are male hormones. The main androgens are testosterone and dihydrotestosterone. Blocking or reducing Trusted Source these hormones appears to stop or delay the growth of cancer cells. One option is to undergo surgery to remove the testicles, which produce most of the body’s hormones. Various drugs can also help.

Immunotherapy: This method uses a person’s immune system to help fight cancer. Scientists can use substances the body produces, or create them in a lab, to help boost or restore the body’s natural defenses against cancer.

Targeted therapy: This method uses drugs or other substances that identify and attack specific cancer cells.

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Hospital and Medical

The Importance Of Pathology Laboratories

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Pathology at a glance

Pathology connects science with medicine by studying the causes and progression of diseases. In addition, pathology laboratories assist doctors in researching and interpreting biopsy and other specimen results in a laboratory setting. Some pathology labs are standalone facilities, but they can also be found within hospitals to help a medical team understand better the causes of varied diseases and conditions.

The importance of clinical pathology

One of the major branches of this science is clinical pathology, while anatomic pathology is the other major branch. Doctors, scientists, and lab assistants working in pathology laboratories study samples from both branches to help medical professionals and doctors understand and control diseases better. Clinical pathology uses urine, blood, and other body fluid types samples. The doctors working in a clinical pathology lab use these samples for laboratory testing. They are used in blood banking tests, microbiology, immunology, clinical chemistry, and hematology tests.

How clinical pathology labs help doctors

These tests within the laboratory are essential because they help physicians understand better how a disease has progressed inside the human body. The tests performed in a clinical pathology lab help physicians understand and make good decisions about certain patients’ most appropriate and best treatments. Clinical pathology also helps physicians ensure they are making a correct diagnosis for a specific patient. Clinical Pathology techniques can be used to test whether a patient is suffering from a particular disease type and what treatment method will most effectively work in curing the disease. Clinical pathology takes the guesswork out of modern medicine.

Pathology laboratory final thoughts

Clinical pathology is an essential part of diagnosing and treating recommendations by your doctor. The treatment that your doctor recommends will be based on facts studied and interpreted through pathology test results to conclude the type of treatment method they should use in your care. Keep in mind that the experts, doctors, and other scientists working in pathology labs are experts on diseases. They have extensive knowledge about disease trends and are experts in preventing illnesses and diseases. Clinical Pathology is used to ensure that patients get the most accurate diagnosis for an illness or disease and receive the treatment they need. On top of it all, clinical pathology can also be an excellent prevention method for patients exploring ways to prevent disease occurrence, especially when they have a family history.

The value of clinical pathology labs and the doctors, scientists, and other staff who keep them operating effectively cannot be overstated. Their work helps diagnose, treat, and cure diseases that improve patients’ quality of life and save lives. This makes it vital for pathology labs to have state-of-the-art technology, optimal workflow, and safety measures in place to keep them operating at their highest potential.

Types of pathology labs

Hospital labs
Almost all hospitals contain a laboratory to support the clinical services offered at the hospital. The specific pathology services would include both anatomic (surgical pathology, cytopathology, autopsy) and clinical (laboratory medicine) pathology at most hospitals. Most, if not all, inpatient and many outpatients seen by hospital-affiliated physicians require tests performed by hospital labs.

Reference labs
Reference labs are usually private, commercial facilities that do both high volume and specialty (high complexity and/or rare) laboratory testing. Most of these tests are referred from physician’s offices, hospital facilities and other patient care facilities such as nursing homes. Reference labs, typically located at a site other than the healthcare facilities, are often used for specialized tests that are ordered only occasionally or require special equipment for analysis.

Public health labs
Public health laboratories are typically run by state and local health departments to diagnosis and protect the public from health threats such as outbreaks of infectious disease. These labs perform tests to monitor the prevalence of certain diseases in the community which are a public health concern, such as outbreaks of foodborne or waterborne illnesses or detection of unique infectious agents.

Hospital and Medical

Maintaining Your Surgical Instruments

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Proper care and handling are key to the longevity of your surgical instruments. After each procedure, you should be following a set cleaning process. Stainless steel instruments, and all other instruments, require proper care to maintain their properties.

Even though stainless-steel instruments are viewed as the best material, you can’t assume that they are entirely corrosion-resistant. The cleaning and sanitizing process of surgical instruments is complex and has become more difficult due to advancements; therefore, these instruments must be handled delicately.

Here are some tips to keep in mind when handling and cleaning your surgical instruments:

  • Immediately after use, clean and dry your instruments. Residue will cause staining if they are not rinsed right after the procedure. It is recommended that you use warm or cool, distilled water and solutions with a pH below 10 for cleaning, rinsing, and sterilization. Dry instruments thoroughly to minimize the risk of corrosion and water spots. For instruments such as forceps and scissors, make sure they are dried in an open position. Store instruments in dry areas.
  • Instruments should be used for their intended purpose only. Make sure you use the appropriate instruments for each procedure. Incorrect use can damage the instruments beyond repair or can impact its performance, which can lead to frustration and delays in the OR.
  • Don’t place instruments in saline or any other harsh solutions. Long-term exposure to saline can break down the surface of an instrument which can cause corrosion, thus, shortening its lifespan.
  • Use a softer brush for manual cleaning. Stiff plastic or nylon brushes are most effective for manual cleaning. You should pay special attention to any hard-to-reach areas and moving parts. Using a steel or wire brush will likely damage the instrument.
  • Lubricate all instruments that have any metal-to-metal action before autoclaving. Only use surgical instrument lubricates. Never use WD-40, oil, or other industrial lubricants. For instruments such as scissors or needle holders, sterilize them in an open position. Never lock an instrument during autoclaving – this will prevent the steam from reaching and sterilizing the metal-to-metal surfaces.
  • Ultrasonic cleaning is one of the most effective cleaning methods. Ultrasonic cleaning is the result of cavitation. The vibration waves create bubbles in the solution which grow until they finally implode, removing grime. Recommended exposure time is 5-10 minutes.
Hospital and Medical

Importance Of CSSD In Hospitals

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Each day, millions of medical procedures are executed in healthcare facilities around the world, with caregivers and patients relying on the availability and use of a wide range of supplies, instruments and equipment. These devices must be suitably cleaned, sanitized, and/or decontaminated, examined for quality to certify decent working conditions, and obtainable at the point of maintenance. In the absenteeism of appropriate management, processing and storage, these devices may become contaminated and minimize valuable patient care.

The Central Sterile Services Department (CSSD) is an organized place in hospitals and other health care services that performs sterilization and other activities on medical devices, equipment and consumables; for ensuing use by health workers in the operating theatre of the hospital and also for other aseptic processes, e.g., catheterization, wound stitching and bandaging in a medical, surgical, maternity or paediatric ward.

Sterilization is the procedure of destroying all living organisms on an article and is the chief duty of most sterile amenities departments. Objects to be sterilized must first be cleaned in an isolated decontamination room and inspected for efficiency, hygiene and damage. There are numerous procedures of sterilization, and which one is used is reliant on countless factors including: operational cost, latent hazards to workers, effectiveness, time, and arrangement of the articles being sterilized.

The CSSD has a significant part in patient care and in minimizing hospital surgical contamination. Various hospital departments depend on the service from the CSSD. With the centralization of the pre-disinfection, cleaning, packing and disinfection of all objects in one section, it is of supreme importance to deliver dependably high quality in the sterilization methods and product quality. As the quantity and variation of medical procedures and the kinds of medical devices are regularly mounting, improved processing is imperative for competence, economy and patient care.

Sterile processing departments are usually separated into 4 major areas to achieve the roles of sanitization, assemblage and sterile processing, disinfected storage, and dispersal.

Decontamination

  • Dismantlement & cleansing used surgical devices and other medical apparatus
  • Working and preserving special sanitization apparatus like automatic washers/purifiers, ultrasonic cleaners, etc.
  • Examining cleansed items to make sure they are hygienic
  • Assemblage
  • Operate PPE’s to shield self from getting harmful infections

Sterilization and Storage

  • Assemblage & packaging of cleaned and disinfected apparatuses
  • Disinfecting amassed trays of devices in suitable sterilizers
  • Precisely working and managing special sterilization equipment like autoclaves
  • Maintaining thorough records of figures of sterilized items, including Autoclave cycle statistics, lot/batch figures, expiration dates for forthcoming tracking of objects that have been sterilized, and stockpiled

Distribution

  • Providing crash carts
  • Maintaining decontaminated medical provisions
  • Confirming that disinfected goods do not become obsolete/averting incident linked sterility problems
  • Transporting sterile provisions where they are required and collecting contaminated ones
  • In most healthcare facilities, the central sterile supply department (CSSD) plays a crucial part in provisioning the items essential to provide quality patient care. To back infection control within the healthcare system, the CSSD staff members must be sufficiently trained and capable, and dedicated to doing the right thing. That means guaranteeing that shortcuts are never taken and that procedures and practices are dependably followed.
  • Applying advanced technologies and procedures may aid in increasing security for patients and staff. High barriers have to be passed in order to reproduce/imitate best systems known in the sterilization procedure. Structures should be in place to sustain and confirm that surgical instruments are appropriately managed before and after operation. Digital solutions for CSSD procedures permit for simplified data supervision and documentation. These keys may decrease mistakes, tension and pressure among the CSSD staff and simplify observance of procedures and strategies. In calculation, digital solutions aid instantaneous information updates and other well-organized behaviors to exchange information.
  • Centralizing the recycling of reusable apparatus helps safeguard undeviating ideals of practice, while also providing for enhanced workflow. This also simplifies the exercise and teaching of capable technicians who must be well-informed about the ethics, intricacies, trials, hazards, and procedures related with the CSSD function. Every CSSD task must be achieved in a way that shields the safety and wellbeing of patients, co-workers and the community.
  • Being employed in the sanitization department of CSSD necessitates detailed information and understanding of microbiology and the cleansing process; cleaning methods; phases in the cleaning procedure; aims of the cleaning method; levels of sanitization; documentation and cleaning of definite surgical instruments, syringes, needles, rubber objects, and specialty articles; cleaning substances and their use; sanitizing agents and their utilization; identification and effect of the cleaning process on diverse metals; different instrument lubrication and upkeep; appropriate clearance of all categories of waste; the conveyance of soiled items; and the operation of apparatus used in the cleaning procedure, such as washers, decontaminators, ultrasonic cleaners, cart washers, steam guns, scope washers, and so on.
  • The ideologies essential to attain sterilization must be understood and utilized. Sanitizers must be laden and worked properly, sterilization quality assurance procedures must be followed and understood to confirm that objects are sterile, and records must be preserved. Factors that can compromise sterile packaging must be understood, prohibited and punctually distinguished. Improving the quality administration with the latest advances helps to sustain a high standard in the CSSD, the “pillar” of sterile exercise in any hospital.

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Hospital and Medical

Pathology

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Pathology is a branch of medical science primarily concerning the cause, origin, and nature of disease. It involves the examination of tissues, organs, bodily fluids, and autopsies in order to study and diagnose disease.

Currently, pathology can be divided into eight main areas, depending on the types of methods used or the types of diseases examined. These different disciplines are described below.

General pathology

General pathology describes a complex and broad field that involves the study of the mechanisms behind cell and tissue injury and understanding how the body responds to and repairs injury. Examples of areas that may be studied include necrosis, neoplasia, wound healing, inflammation and how cells adapt to injury. Thorough understanding in these areas is applied in the diagnosis of disease. General pathology is also the term used to describe anatomical and clinical pathology.

This field covers areas of pathology, but at a less specialist level. A person working in general pathology would be trained in the areas of laboratory analysis, such as hematology and clinical chemistry. However, they would have a less detailed knowledge than a person who specializes in one of these fields.

Anatomical pathology

This field is concerned with the study and diagnosis of illness through microscopic analysis of samples from bodily fluids, tissues organs and sometimes the entire body or autopsy. Factors that may be examined include the cell appearance, anatomical makeup and chemical signatures within cells.

This discipline can be subdivided into several disciplines and examples of these are given below:

  • Histology – Samples of bodily tissues and organs are prepared and examined in order to detect and diagnose disease. The architecture of tissue is observed at a microscopic level and the relationship between different cell and tissue types is examined.
  • Cytology – Bodily fluids and tissues are examined at the cellular level in order to screen for and diagnose disease and help aid treatment decisions. A cytologist will examine how cells look, form and function.
  • Forensic pathology – Forensic pathology is the examination of an autopsy in order to discover the cause of death. The external appearance is first assessed to check for evidence of wounds or suffocation, for example. Surgical procedures are then begun and the internal organs are studied to see whether internal injuries exist and are connected to external ones.

Clinical pathology

Also referred to as laboratory medicine, clinical pathology concerns the analysis of blood, urine and tissue samples to examine and diagnose disease. Examples of the information clinical pathology laboratories may provide include blood count, blood clotting and electrolyte results. A clinical pathologist is usually trained in microbiology, hematology or blood banking, but not at the same expert level as someone who specializes in one of these fields.

A clinical pathologist may come across problems that demand specific expertise, at which point they would need to consult a more specialized colleague. Clinical pathologists play a similar role to that of general pathologists, although they would not be involved in anatomical pathology.

Chemical Pathology or Biochemistry

Biochemists or chemical pathologists examine all aspects of disease, identifying changes in various different substances found in the blood and bodily fluids such as proteins, hormones and electrolytes since these changes can indicate and provide clues about disease or disease risk.

For example, a biochemist may assess cholesterol and triglyceride levels in order to determine heart disease risk. They may also look for and measure tumor markers, vitamins, poisons, medications and recreational drugs.

Genetics

There are three main branches of genetics and these include the following:

  • Cytogenetics: This is the analysis of chromosomal abnormalities at the microscopic level.
  • Biochemical genetics: The search for specific disease markers using biochemical techniques.
  • Molecular genetics: Gene mutations are searched for and analyzed using DNA technology.

Genetics involves performing tests on chromosomes, biochemical markers and DNA taken from bodily fluids and tissues in order to detect genetic illnesses.

Hematology

This field is concerned with various different disease aspects that affect the blood, including bleeding disorders, clotting problems, and anemia, for example. Another area of hematology is transfusion medicine, which involves performing blood typing, cross-matching for compatibility and managing large amounts of blood products. An example of a test a hematologist may perform is a blood clotting test to check whether a patient’s dose of warfarin needs increasing or decreasing.

Immunology

Immunologists perform immune function tests to establish whether or not a patient is suffering from an allergy and if so, what they are allergic to. Many diseases also arise as a result of the immune system having an abnormal reaction to healthy cells or tissues and launching an immune attack against them. This is referred to as a autoimmune disease. There is a range of immunological tests that can detect markers of autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes and lupus.

Microbiology

Microbiology is concerned with diseases caused by pathogenic agents such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi. Samples of blood, bodily fluid and tissue are tested to establish whether infection exists, and the field of medical microbiology is also engaged with identifying new species of microorganisms.

Other areas encompassed by microbiology include control of infection outbreaks and researching the problems resulting from bacterial antibiotic resistance. One of the principal roles of the microbiologist is to make sure that antimicrobial drugs are prescribed and used appropriately.

Hospital and Medical

Anaesthesia

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Anesthesia is a treatment using drugs called anesthetics. These drugs keep you from feeling pain during medical procedures. Anesthesiologists are medical doctors who administer anesthesia and manage pain. Some anesthesia numbs a small area of the body. General anesthesia makes you unconscious (asleep) during invasive surgical procedures.

What is anesthesia?

Anesthesia is a medical treatment that keeps you from feeling pain during procedures or surgery. The medications used to block pain are called anesthetics. Different types of anesthesia work in different ways. Some anesthetic medications numb certain parts of the body, while other medications numb the brain, to induce a sleep through more invasive surgical procedures, like those within the head, chest, or abdomen.

How does anesthesia work?

Anesthesia temporarily blocks sensory/pain signals from nerves to the centers in the brain. Your peripheral nerves connect the spinal cord to the rest of your body.

Who performs anesthesia?

If you’re having a relatively simple procedure like a tooth extraction that requires numbing a small area, the person performing your procedure can administer the local anesthetic. For more complex and invasive procedures, your anesthetic will be administered by a physician anesthesiologist. This medical doctor manages your pain before, during and after surgery. In addition to your physician anesthesiologist, your anesthesia team can be comprised of physicians in training (fellows or residents), a certified registered nurse anesthetist (CRNA), or a certified anesthesiologist assistant (CAA).

What are the types of anesthesia?

The anesthesia your healthcare provider uses depends on the type and scope of the procedure. Options include:

  • Local anesthesia: This treatment numbs a small section of the body. Examples of procedures in which local anesthesia could be used include cataract surgery, a dental procedure or skin biopsy. You’re awake during the procedure.
  • Regional anesthesia: Regional anesthesia blocks pain in a larger part of your body, such as a limb or everything below your chest. You are can be conscious during the procedure, or have sedation in addition to the regional anesthetic. Examples include an epidural to ease the pain of childbirth or during a cesarean section (C-section), a spinal for hip or knee surgery, or an arm block for hand surgery.
  • General anesthesia: This treatment makes you unconscious and insensitive to pain or other stimuli. General anesthesia is used for more invasive surgical procedures, or procedures of the head, chest, or abdomen.
  • Sedation: Sedation relaxes you to the point where you will have a more natural sleep, but can be easily aroused or awakened. Light sedation can be prescribed by the person performing your procedure, or together with a regular nurse, if they both have training to provide moderate sedation. Examples of procedures performed with light or moderate sedation include cardiac catheterization and some colonoscopies. Deep sedation is provided by an anesthesia professional because your breathing may be affected with the stronger anesthetic medications, but you will be more asleep than with light or moderate sedation. Although you won’t be completely unconscious, you are not as likely to remember the procedure.

How should I prepare for anesthesia?

Make sure your healthcare provider has a current list of the medications and supplements (vitamins and herbal medications) you take. Certain drugs can interact with anesthesia or cause bleeding and increase the risk of complications. You should also:

  • Avoid food and drinks for eight hours before you go to the hospital unless directed otherwise.
  • Quit smoking, even if it’s just for one day before the procedure, to improve heart and lung health. The most beneficial effects are seen with no smoking for two weeks before.
  • Stop taking herbal supplements for one to two weeks before the procedure as directed by your provider.
  • Not take Viagra® or other medications for erectile dysfunction at least 24 hours before the procedure.
  • You should take certain (but not all) blood pressure medications with a sip of water as instructed by your healthcare provider.

What happens during anesthesia?

A physician anesthesiologist:

  • Administers one type or a combination of anesthetics listed above pain therapies, and possibly anti-nausea medications.
  • Monitors vital signs, including blood pressure, blood oxygen level, pulse and heart rate.
  • Identifies and manages problems, such as an allergic reaction or a change in vital signs.
  • Provides postsurgical pain management.

What should I do after getting anesthesia?

For procedures using local anesthesia, you can return to work or most activities after treatment unless your healthcare provider says otherwise. You’ll need more time to recover if you’ve received regional or general anesthesia or sedation. You should:

  • Have someone drive you home.
  • Rest for the remainder of the day.
  • Not drive or operate equipment for 24 hours.
  • Abstain from alcohol for 24 hours.
  • Only take medications or supplements approved by your provider.
  • Avoid making any important or legal decisions for 24 hours.

How long does it take to recover from anesthesia?

Anesthetic drugs can stay in your system for up to 24 hours. If you’ve had sedation or regional or general anesthesia, you shouldn’t return to work or drive until the drugs have left your body. After local anesthesia, you should be able to resume normal activities, as long as your healthcare provider says it’s okay.

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Hospital and Medical

Laryngoscopy

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A laryngoscopy is an examination that gives your doctor a close-up view of your larynx and throat. The larynx is your voice box. It’s located at the top of your windpipe, or trachea.

It’s important to keep your larynx healthy because it contains your vocal folds, or cords. Air passing through your larynx and over the vocal folds causes them to vibrate and produce sound. This gives you the ability to speak.

A specialist known as an “ear, nose, and throat” (ENT) doctor will perform the exam. During the exam, your doctor place a small mirror into your throat, or insert a viewing instrument called a laryngoscope into your mouth. Sometimes, they’ll do both.

A laryngoscopy is a procedure healthcare providers use to examine your larynx (voice box). This is performed with a laryngoscope, a thin tube with a light, lens and a video camera that helps providers look closely at your larynx. Providers may do laryngoscopies in a clinic office or as surgery in an operating room.

What is my larynx?

Your larynx is located between your throat and your trachea (windpipe). Your larynx houses your vocal cords (vocal folds), which enable you to speak and sing. Your epiglottis sits on top of your larynx. Your epiglottis is a flap that closes when you eat or drink so items intended for your esophagus (food pipe) don’t end up in your larynx or in your airway. When people talk about something going down the wrong pipe, the pipe they’re talking about is your larynx.

When is laryngoscopy needed?

Your doctor may do it to find out why you have a sore throat that won’t go away or to diagnose an ongoing problem such as coughing, hoarseness, or bad breath. They also might do one when:

  • You have something stuck in your throat.
  • You have trouble breathing or swallowing.
  • You have an earache that won’t go away.
  • They need to examine something that could be a sign of a more serious health problem such as cancer.
  • They need to remove a growth.

Types of laryngoscopy

There are several ways your doctor may do this procedure:

Indirect laryngoscopy: This is the simplest form. Your doctor uses a small mirror and a light to look into your throat. The mirror is on a long handle, like the kind a dentist often uses, and it’s placed against the roof of your mouth.

The doctor shines a light into your mouth to see the image in the mirror. It can be done in a doctor’s office in just 5 to 10 minutes.

You’ll sit in a chair while the exam is done. Your doctor might spray something into your throat to make it numb. Having something stuck in your throat might make you gag, however.

Direct fiber-optic laryngoscopy: Many doctors now do this kind, sometimes called flexible laryngoscopy. They use a small telescope at the end of a cable, which goes up your nose and down into your throat.

It takes less than 10 minutes. You’ll get a numbing medication for your nose. Sometimes a decongestant is used to open your nasal passages as well. Gagging is a common reaction with this procedure as well.

Direct laryngoscopy: This is the most involved type. Your doctor uses a laryngoscope to push down your tongue and lift up the epiglottis. That’s the flap of cartilage that covers your windpipe. It opens during breathing and closes during swallowing.

Your doctor can do this to remove small growths or samples of tissue for testing. They can also use this procedure to insert a tube into the windpipe to help someone breathe during an emergency or in surgery.

Direct laryngoscopy can take up to 45 minutes. You’ll be given what’s called general anesthesia, so that you will not be awake during the procedure. Your doctor can take out any growths in your throat or take a sample of something that might need to be checked more closely.

I’m having a laryngoscopy what should I expect?

Your healthcare provider will consider your specific situation when deciding which type of laryngoscopy they’ll use. You may have your laryngoscopy in a clinic office or as a surgical procedure. For example, your provider may decide you should have a surgical laryngoscopy in an operating room. This is a direct laryngoscopy. Providers typically do direct laryngoscopies following in-office flexible laryngoscopies. Direct laryngoscopies may be done along with biopsies or other surgical procedures.

What happens before laryngoscopy?

If you’re having a surgical laryngoscopy, you’ll receive general anesthesia. Your provider will talk to you about getting ready for your procedure:

  • You may need to fast the night before your procedure.
  • You may need to avoid certain medications before your procedure.
  • If you smoke, your provider may recommend you stop smoking a week or so before your procedure.
  • You’ll need someone to give you a ride home after your surgery.

What happens during laryngoscopy?

Surgical laryngoscopies and clinic office laryngoscopies have different processes.

Laryngoscopy in an office clinic

  • In some cases, your provider may use a small, tilted mirror and a bright light to examine your vocal cords.
  • They also may use a flexible laryngoscope. This is a flexible fiberoptic scope inserted through your nose to look down your throat.
  • Your provider will apply a small amount of numbing medicine and decongestant to your nose. The numbing medication may taste bitter.
  • You may feel an urge to cough, but that urge is likely to subside.
  • Your provider will then gently pass the flexible laryngoscope into a nostril and look down your throat.
  • They may have you speak during the test to see how your voice box is working.
  • In some circumstances, they may use a special scope that’s inserted through your mouth.

Direct laryngoscopy in the operating room

Your provider will use a special laryngoscope that’s inserted through your mouth. Because you had general anesthesia, you won’t feel anything.

What happens after laryngoscopy?

Different things happen depending on whether you had a surgical laryngoscopy or one done in an office clinic.

In-office clinic laryngoscopy

  • Your nose and throat may feel numb for a few minutes after the procedure. This usually wears off in about 20 minutes.
  • You should avoid eating or drinking while your mouth and throat are numb.

Operating room direct laryngoscopy

  • You’ll go to the recovery unit after surgery to recover from anesthesia so your provider can watch for any complications or problems.
  • You may have a mild sore throat and/or hoarseness. Your provider may want you to rest your voice for a while after your surgery.

What are the benefits of a laryngoscopy?

Your doctor is concerned that you may have a problem in your larynx. A laryngoscopy is a good way of finding out if there is a problem.

If your surgeon finds a problem, they can perform biopsies (removing small pieces of tissue) to help make the diagnosis. For some people, the treatment can be performed at the same time.

For some people minor treatments can be performed at the same time.

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Hospital and Medical

Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery

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Functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) is a minimally invasive procedure which uses nasal endoscopes to enlarge the nasal drainage pathways of the paranasal sinuses to improve sinus ventilation and allow access of topical medications. This procedure is generally used to treat inflammatory and infectious sinus diseases, including chronic rhino sinusitis that do not respond to drugs, nasal polyps, some cancers, and decompression of eye sockets/optic nerve in Graves ophthalmopathy. In the surgery, an otolaryngologist removes the uncinate process of the ethmoid bone, while visualizing the nasal passage using a fiber optic endoscope. FESS can be performed under local anesthesia as an outpatient procedure. Generally patients experience only minimal discomfort during and after surgery. The procedure can take from 2 to 4 hours to complete.

Medical applications

Functional endoscopic sinus surgery is most commonly used to treat chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS), only after all non-surgical treatment options such as antibiotics, topical nasal corticosteroids, and nasal lavage with saline solutions[3] have been exhausted. (CRS) is an inflammatory condition in which the nose and at least one sinus become swollen and interfere with mucus drainage It can be caused by anatomical factors such as a deviated septum or nasal polyps (growths), as well as infection. Symptoms include difficulty breathing through the nose, swelling and pain around the nose and eyes, postnasal drainage down the throat, and difficulty sleeping. CRS is a common condition in children and young adults.

The purpose of FESS in treatment of CRS is to remove any anatomical obstructions that prevent proper mucosal drainage. A standard FESS includes removal of the uncinate process, and opening of the ethmoid air cells and Haller cells as well as the maxillary ostium, if necessary. If any nasal polyps obstructing ventilation or drainage are present, they are also removed. In the case of paranasal sinus/nasal cavity tumors (benign or cancerous), an otolaryngologist can perform FESS to remove the growths, sometimes with the help of a neurosurgeon, depending on the extent of the tumor. In some cases, a graft of bone or skin is placed by FESS to repair damages by the tumor.

In the thyroid disorder known as Graves’ ophthalmopathy, inflammation and fat accumulation in the orbitonasal region cause severe proptosis. In cases that have not responded to corticosteroid treatment, FESS can be used to decompress the orbital region by removing the ethmoid air cells and lamina papyracea. Bones of the orbital cavity or portions of the orbital floor may also be removed. endoscopic approach to FESS is a less invasive method than open sinus surgery, which allows patients to be more comfortable during and after the procedure. Entering the surgical field via the nose, rather than through an incision in the mouth as in the previous Caldwell-Luc method, decreases risk of damaging nerves which innervate the teeth. Because of its less-invasive nature, FESS is a common option for children with CRS or other sinonasal complications.

It has been suggested that one of the main objectives in FESS surgery is to allow for the introduction of local therapeutic agents (such as steroids) to the sinuses. Research has shown that a special modification of the nozzle of the nasal spray in patients who had FESS allows for better delivery of local therapeutic agents into the ethmoid sinuses.

What is the difference between ESS and FESS?

ESS or Endoscopic Sinus Surgery is a broader term which covers any endoscopic surgery of the nose and sinuses, including FESS. ESS may not be functional (e.g preservation of mucosa) and some indications for ESS include resection of sinonasal tumour, resection of skull base or brain tumour through the nose and sinuses, surgery of the eye through the nose and sinuses and surgery on the nasal septum.

Why do people call it functional endoscopic sinus surgery?

Functional endoscopic sinus surgery is also called endoscopic sinus surgery. Some healthcare providers use the term “functional” because the surgery is done to restore how your sinuses work, or function.

When would I need functional endoscopic sinus surgery?

Your healthcare provider may recommend FESS if you have chronic sinus inflammation or a chronic sinus infection that doesn’t improve with medical treatments, such as antibiotics and medications to manage allergies.

You develop sinusitis when the tissue that lines your sinuses begins to swell, trapping mucus that typically flows through your sinuses and out through your nose. The trapped fluid can grow bacteria that can cause infections. Healthcare providers may also recommend surgery if you have nasal polyps.

What happens before this procedure?

Your healthcare provider will let you know what to do before your surgery. Every person’s situation is different, but most healthcare providers recommend the following:

  • If you smoke, stop smoking at least three weeks before your surgery. Smoking can make your sinus symptoms worse. Ask your healthcare provider for advice or resources to help with this.
  • Don’t take aspirin for at least 10 days before your surgery. Even small amounts of aspirin can increase how much you bleed during and after your surgery.
  • If your surgery involves general anesthesia, don’t eat or drink anything after midnight the day of your surgery.
  • Your healthcare provider will administer general anesthesia just before your surgery begins.

How is functional endoscopic surgery performed?

FESS is the standard procedure to treat serious sinus conditions. Healthcare providers continue to refine their approach. Here’s an overview of the process:

  • Your healthcare provider puts decongestant medication in your nose.
  • They do a follow-up nasal endoscopy.
  • They inject a numbing solution into your nose.
  • Using the endoscope, they gently enter your nose. They insert surgical tools alongside the endoscope to use the endoscope to remove bone, diseased tissue or polyps that may be blocking your sinuses.
  • They may also use a small rotating burr to scrape out tissue.
  • Finally, your healthcare provider may pack your nose with material to absorb any blood or discharge.

What is the recovery after FESS?

After sinus surgery, the surgeon will usually place dressings in the sinus cavities to prevent post-operative adhesions and to minimise bleeding. These dressings may be absorbable (which do not require removal) or non-absorbable (which will usually be removed between 5 – 10 days after surgery). In some conditions, “nasal packs” may be inserted in the nasal cavities to minimise bleeding after surgery. These “nasal packs” are non absorbable and are usually removed in 1 – 2 days. Depending on the extent of the sinus operation, the patient may be allowed to go home on the same day (as a Day Surgery Procedure) or may be admitted to the ward and observed overnight. It is common for patients to feel blocked in the nose from the packing material and blood clots. A nasal gauze (“bolster”) will be placed under the nose to collect any blood that drips out (Fig 2). This is usually removed before the patient goes home. There may be mild pain after the surgery but this is usually well-controlled with pain relievers.

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Hospital and Medical

What Is Cancer?

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Cancer is a disease in which some of the body’s cells grow uncontrollably and spread to other parts of the body.Cancer can start almost anywhere in the human body, which is made up of trillions of cells. Normally, human cells grow and multiply (through a process called cell division) to form new cells as the body needs them. When cells grow old or become damaged, they die, and new cells take their place.Sometimes this orderly process breaks down, and abnormal or damaged cells grow and multiply when they shouldn’t. These cells may form tumors, which are lumps of tissue. Tumors can be cancerous or not cancerous (benign).

Cancerous tumors spread into, or invade, nearby tissues and can travel to distant places in the body to form new tumors (a process called metastasis). Cancerous tumors may also be called malignant tumors. Many cancers form solid tumors, but cancers of the blood, such as leukemias, generally do not.

Benign tumors do not spread into, or invade, nearby tissues. When removed, benign tumors usually don’t grow back, whereas cancerous tumors sometimes do. Benign tumors can sometimes be quite large, however. Some can cause serious symptoms or be life threatening, such as benign tumors in the brain.

Differences between Cancer Cells and Normal Cells

Cancer cells differ from normal cells in many ways. For instance, cancer cells:

  • grow in the absence of signals telling them to grow. Normal cells only grow when they receive such signals.
  • ignore signals that normally tell cells to stop dividing or to die (a process known as programmed cell death, or apoptosis).
  • invade into nearby areas and spread to other areas of the body. Normal cells stop growing when they encounter other cells, and most normal cells do not move around the body.
  • tell blood vessels to grow toward tumors.  These blood vessels supply tumors with oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products from tumors.
  • hide from the immune system. The immune system normally eliminates damaged or abnormal cells.
  • trick the immune system into helping cancer cells stay alive and grow. For instance, some cancer cells convince immune cells to protect the tumor instead of attacking it.
  • accumulate multiple changes in their chromosomes, such as duplications and deletions of chromosome parts. Some cancer cells have double the normal number of chromosomes.
  • rely on different kinds of nutrients than normal cells. In addition, some cancer cells make energy from nutrients in a different way than most normal cells. This lets cancer cells grow more quickly.

Many times, cancer cells rely so heavily on these abnormal behaviors that they can’t survive without them. Researchers have taken advantage of this fact, developing therapies that target the abnormal features of cancer cells. For example, some cancer therapies prevent blood vessels from growing toward tumors, essentially starving the tumor of needed nutrients.

How Does Cancer Develop?

Cancer is a genetic disease—that is, it is caused by changes to genes that control the way our cells function, especially how they grow and divide.

Genetic changes that cause cancer can happen because:

  • of errors that occur as cells divide.
  • of damage to DNA caused by harmful substances in the environment, such as the chemicals in tobacco smoke and ultraviolet rays from the sun.
  • they were inherited from our parents.

The body normally eliminates cells with damaged DNA before they turn cancerous. But the body’s ability to do so goes down as we age. This is part of the reason why there is a higher risk of cancer later in life.

Each person’s cancer has a unique combination of genetic changes. As the cancer continues to grow, additional changes will occur. Even within the same tumor, different cells may have different genetic changes.

 

Types of Genes that Cause Cancer

The genetic changes that contribute to cancer tend to affect three main types of genes—proto-oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and DNA repair genes. These changes are sometimes called “drivers” of cancer.

Proto-oncogenes are involved in normal cell growth and division. However, when these genes are altered in certain ways or are more active than normal, they may become cancer-causing genes (or oncogenes), allowing cells to grow and survive when they should not.

Tumor suppressor genes are also involved in controlling cell growth and division. Cells with certain alterations in tumor suppressor genes may divide in an uncontrolled manner.

DNA repair genes are involved in fixing damaged DNA. Cells with mutations in these genes tend to develop additional mutations in other genes and changes in their chromosomes, such as duplications and deletions of chromosome parts. Together, these mutations may cause the cells to become cancerous.

As scientists have learned more about the molecular changes that lead to cancer, they have found that certain mutations commonly occur in many types of cancer. Now there are many cancer treatments available that target gene mutations found in cancer. A few of these treatments can be used by anyone with a cancer that has the targeted mutation, no matter where the cancer started growing.

When Cancer Spreads

A cancer that has spread from the place where it first formed to another place in the body is called metastatic cancer. The process by which cancer cells spread to other parts of the body is called metastasis.

Metastatic cancer has the same name and the same type of cancer cells as the original, or primary, cancer. For example, breast cancer that forms a metastatic tumor in the lung is metastatic breast cancer, not lung cancer.

Under a microscope, metastatic cancer cells generally look the same as cells of the original cancer. Moreover, metastatic cancer cells and cells of the original cancer usually have some molecular features in common, such as the presence of specific chromosome changes.

In some cases, treatment may help prolong the lives of people with metastatic cancer. In other cases, the primary goal of treatment for metastatic cancer is to control the growth of the cancer or to relieve symptoms it is causing. Metastatic tumors can cause severe damage to how the body functions, and most people who die of cancer die of metastatic disease.

Tissue Changes that Are Not Cancer

Not every change in the body’s tissues is cancer. Some tissue changes may develop into cancer if they are not treated, however. Here are some examples of tissue changes that are not cancer but, in some cases, are monitored because they could become cancer:

  • Hyperplasia occurs when cells within a tissue multiply faster than normal and extra cells build up. However, the cells and the way the tissue is organized still look normal under a microscope. Hyperplasia can be caused by several factors or conditions, including chronic irritation.
  • Dysplasia is a more advanced condition than hyperplasia. In dysplasia, there is also a buildup of extra cells. But the cells look abnormal and there are changes in how the tissue is organized. In general, the more abnormal the cells and tissue look, the greater the chance that cancer will form. Some types of dysplasia may need to be monitored or treated, but others do not. An example of dysplasia is an abnormal mole (called a dysplastic nevus) that forms on the skin. A dysplastic nevus can turn into melanoma, although most do not.
  • Carcinoma in situ is an even more advanced condition. Although it is sometimes called stage 0 cancer, it is not cancer because the abnormal cells do not invade nearby tissue the way that cancer cells do. But because some carcinomas in situ may become cancer, they are usually treated.

Types of Cancer

There are more than 100 types of cancer. Types of cancer are usually named for the organs or tissues where the cancers form. For example, lung cancer starts in the lung, and brain cancer starts in the brain. Cancers also may be described by the type of cell that formed them, such as an epithelial cell or a squamous cell.

You can search NCI’s website for information on specific types of cancer based on the cancer’s location in the body

Here are some categories of cancers that begin in specific types of cells:

Carcinoma

Carcinomas are the most common type of cancer. They are formed by epithelial cells, which are the cells that cover the inside and outside surfaces of the body. There are many types of epithelial cells, which often have a column-like shape when viewed under a microscope.

Carcinomas that begin in different epithelial cell types have specific names:

Adenocarcinoma is a cancer that forms in epithelial cells that produce fluids or mucus. Tissues with this type of epithelial cell are sometimes called glandular tissues. Most cancers of the breast, colon, and prostate are adenocarcinomas.

Basal cell carcinoma is a cancer that begins in the lower or basal (base) layer of the epidermis, which is a person’s outer layer of skin.

Squamous cell carcinoma is a cancer that forms in squamous cells, which are epithelial cells that lie just beneath the outer surface of the skin. Squamous cells also line many other organs, including the stomach, intestines, lungs, bladder, and kidneys. Squamous cells look flat, like fish scales, when viewed under a microscope. Squamous cell carcinomas are sometimes called epidermoid carcinomas.

Transitional cell carcinoma is a cancer that forms in a type of epithelial tissue called transitional epithelium, or urothelium. This tissue, which is made up of many layers of epithelial cells that can get bigger and smaller, is found in the linings of the bladder, ureters, and part of the kidneys (renal pelvis), and a few other organs. Some cancers of the bladder, ureters, and kidneys are transitional cell carcinomas.

Sarcoma

Sarcomas are cancers that form in bone and soft tissues, including muscle, fat, blood vessels, lymph vessels, and fibrous tissue (such as tendons and ligaments).

Osteosarcoma is the most common cancer of bone. The most common types of soft tissue sarcoma are leiomyosarcoma, Kaposi sarcoma, malignant fibrous histiocytoma, liposarcoma, and dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans.

Leukemia

Cancers that begin in the blood-forming tissue of the bone marrow are called leukemias. These cancers do not form solid tumors. Instead, large numbers of abnormal white blood cells (leukemia cells and leukemic blast cells) build up in the blood and bone marrow, crowding out normal blood cells. The low level of normal blood cells can make it harder for the body to get oxygen to its tissues, control bleeding, or fight infections.

There are four common types of leukemia, which are grouped based on how quickly the disease gets worse (acute or chronic) and on the type of blood cell the cancer starts in (lymphoblastic or myeloid). Acute forms of leukemia grow quickly and chronic forms grow more slowly.

Lymphoma

Lymphoma is cancer that begins in lymphocytes (T cells or B cells). These are disease-fighting white blood cells that are part of the immune system. In lymphoma, abnormal lymphocytes build up in lymph nodes and lymph vessels, as well as in other organs of the body.

There are two main types of lymphoma:

Hodgkin lymphoma – People with this disease have abnormal lymphocytes that are called Reed-Sternberg cells. These cells usually form from B cells.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma – This is a large group of cancers that start in lymphocytes. The cancers can grow quickly or slowly and can form from B cells or T cells.

Multiple Myeloma

Multiple myeloma is cancer that begins in plasma cells, another type of immune cell. The abnormal plasma cells, called myeloma cells, build up in the bone marrow and form tumors in bones all through the body. Multiple myeloma is also called plasma cell myeloma and Kahler disease.

Melanoma

Melanoma is cancer that begins in cells that become melanocytes, which are specialized cells that make melanin (the pigment that gives skin its color). Most melanomas form on the skin, but melanomas can also form in other pigmented tissues, such as the eye.

Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors

There are different types of brain and spinal cord tumors. These tumors are named based on the type of cell in which they formed and where the tumor first formed in the central nervous system. For example, an astrocytic tumor begins in star-shaped brain cells called astrocytes, which help keep nerve cells healthy. Brain tumors can be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer).

Other Types of Tumors

Germ Cell Tumors

Germ cell tumors are a type of tumor that begins in the cells that give rise to sperm or eggs. These tumors can occur almost anywhere in the body and can be either benign or malignant.

Neuroendocrine Tumors

Neuroendocrine tumors form from cells that release hormones into the blood in response to a signal from the nervous system. These tumors, which may make higher-than-normal amounts of hormones, can cause many different symptoms. Neuroendocrine tumors may be benign or malignant.

Carcinoid Tumors

Carcinoid tumors are a type of neuroendocrine tumor. They are slow-growing tumors that are usually found in the gastrointestinal system (most often in the rectum and small intestine). Carcinoid tumors may spread to the liver or other sites in the body, and they may secrete substances such as serotonin or prostaglandins, causing carcinoid syndrome.

Hospital and Medical

Bronchoscopy

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Bronchoscopy is a procedure that lets doctors look at your lungs and air passages. It’s usually performed by a doctor who specializes in lung disorders (a pulmonologist). During bronchoscopy, a thin tube (bronchoscope) is passed through your nose or mouth, down your throat and into your lungs.

Bronchoscopy is most commonly performed using a flexible bronchoscope. However, in certain situations, such as if there’s a lot of bleeding in your lungs or a large object is stuck in your airway, a rigid bronchoscope may be needed.

Common reasons for needing bronchoscopy are a persistent cough, infection or something unusual seen on a chest X-ray or other test.

Bronchoscopy can also be used to obtain samples of mucus or tissue, to remove foreign bodies or other blockages from the airways or lungs, or to provide treatment for lung problems.

What is bronchoscopy?

Bronchoscopy is a procedure to look directly at the airways in the lungs using a thin, lighted tube (bronchoscope). The bronchoscope is put in the nose or mouth. It is moved down the throat and windpipe (trachea), and into the airways. A healthcare provider can then see the voice box (larynx), trachea, large airways to the lungs (bronchi), and smaller branches of the bronchi (bronchioles).

There are 2 types of bronchoscopes: flexible and rigid. Both types come in different widths.

A rigid bronchoscope is a straight tube. It’s only used to view the larger airways. It may be used within the bronchi to:

  • Remove a large number of secretions or blood
  • Control bleeding
  • Remove foreign objects
  • Remove diseased tissue (lesions)
  • Do procedures, such as stents and other treatments

A flexible bronchoscope is used more often. Unlike the rigid scope, it can be moved down into the smaller airways (bronchioles). The flexible bronchoscope may be used to:

  • Place a breathing tube in the airway to help give oxygen
  • Suction out secretions
  • Take tissue samples (biopsy)
  • Put medicine into the lungs

Why might I need bronchoscopy?

A bronchoscopy may be done to diagnose and treat lung problems such as:

  • Tumors or bronchial cancer
  • Airway blockage (obstruction)
  • Narrowed areas in airways (strictures)
  • Inflammation and infections such as tuberculosis (TB), pneumonia, and fungal or parasitic lung infections
  • Interstitial pulmonary disease
  • Causes of persistent cough
  • Causes of coughing up blood
  • Spots seen on chest X-rays
  • Vocal cord paralysis

Diagnostic procedures or treatments that are done with bronchoscopy include:

  • Biopsy of tissue
  • Collection of sputum
  • Fluid put into the lungs and then removed (bronchoalveolar lavage or BAL) to diagnose lung disorders
  • Removal of secretions, blood, mucus plugs, or growths (polyps) to clear airways
  • Control of bleeding in the bronchi
  • Removing foreign objects or other blockages
  • Laser therapy or radiation treatment for bronchial tumors
  • Placement of a small tube (stent) to keep an airway open (stent placement)
  • Draining an area of pus (abscess)

Your healthcare provider may also have other reasons to advise a bronchoscopy.

How do I prepare for bronchoscopy?

Your healthcare providers will give you specific instructions about how to prepare.

You’ll need to fast (not eat or drink) for a certain period of time before the procedure. You may also have to stop taking certain medications that can thin your blood, like warfarin.

You will have a sedative or anesthesia before the procedure. You should plan on having someone available to drive you home afterward.

What happens during a bronchoscopy?

The entire bronchoscopy procedure typically takes from 30 minutes to a couple of hours. It’s usually performed in a hospital as an outpatient procedure. During a bronchoscopy:

  1. You lie on a bed or table with your head propped up.
  2. Your provider inserts an IV into your arm to deliver a sedative to help you relax. Some people may prefer to be asleep for the procedure. Rigid bronchoscopy and certain types of flexible bronchoscopy usually requires general anesthesia (being asleep). You and your provider can decide if general anesthesia is right for you.
  3. Your provider applies a numbing spray to your mouth (or nose) and throat.
  4. Once the area is numb and you are sedated, the provider inserts the bronchoscope through your nose or mouth and down into your windpipe to your lungs.
  5. After the procedure, the provider gently removes the bronchoscope. Your healthcare team monitors your condition until you are fully awake.

What happens after a bronchoscopy?

Bronchoscopy is an outpatient procedure, so you will not need to spend the night in the hospital. Patients can typically go home within a few hours of the procedure.

Your healthcare team will monitor you after the procedure to ensure you are breathing and swallowing properly. It will take a couple of hours for the numbness in your throat to wear off. You may have a sore throat, cough or hoarseness after the procedure for the next 24 hours.

Your healthcare team will let you know when you should expect test results and when you should schedule a follow-up appointment.

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